The myth of the gender wage gap of more than 20%
"equal work" (long version)
Gender,
communitarianism and affirmative action are the symptoms of egalitarianism. Indeed, an
examination of statistical data does not attest to discrimination allegedly
important, especially for equal pay between men and women. The wage gap
of 27% (more for men) crude is mainly due to the career preferences (part-time,
unlike industry, overtime and responsibility). When is restricted to
full-time work, the gap is 10.7% (more for men), including 5.1 points
unexplained. The working
time of self-employed is less well understood than that of employees, so you
can not directly compare these unexplained 5% among employees in the
unexplained part for non-employees. However, if we eliminate the
effects of industry, size, legal form and age, there is a pay gap even stronger
among non-employees without employers (33% gross less for women whose 20 points
unexplained, are 49.3% higher for men with unexplained 25 points) than
employees (20% less for women with 12 points unexplained, are 25% more gross
for men, 13.6 unexplained point outside working hours). Among
full-time employees is the differential of 10.7% gross in favor of men,
including 5.1 points unexplained. Thus, the unexplained portion of wage gap of around 12% between male and
female employees (outside working hours), is less than the unexplained part of
the actives without employers (20%). Mean differences of
"performance" probably explain some of these unexplained 5%
(including working time). Wage discrimination between men and women for equal work, and seems quite
marginal.
The huge wage discrimination
that women suffer at work is an example of how the passion for equality led
some to formulate cons-truths.
Helena Cronin professor of
philosophy at the London School of Economics says about this:
"If people use the truth
to justify bad decisions, we must fight these decisions, not deny reality
..."
http://www.lactualite.com/20080917_122222_31192?page=0,
1
Christina Hoff Sommers, philsosophe says about quotas in boards: "It is
neither constructive nor a company admirable form a
consensus on an error."
http://www.aei.org/article/society-and-culture/the-case-against-gender-quotas/
Do not confuse inequality and
injustice
Undeniably laudable intentions that animate the heralds of the anti-discrimination, should not obscure some design principles
and scientific facts.
Conceptually, it is important to distinguish inequality or injustice. Inequality, quantitative concept, is a simple statement of a hierarchical
difference compared to a given criterion. For example,
there is unequal pay between a government and an official of category C. In general, this inequality is not regarded as an injustice, given the
obvious differences in responsibilities. Injustice, moral concept and therefore qualitative means, in effect, a
difference of treatment (arbitrary) for the same situation, or at least a
comparable situation. For example,
it is unfair that an employee is paid more than his colleague, even though they
perform similar work. In the same
vein, it is unfair that an employee making twice the work of his colleague, to
be paid similarly. In the latter case, it is
precisely equal pay is unfair.
Once this conceptual distinction posed, one can ask whether an inequality
reflects an injustice or even if a tie is not in itself an injustice. In sum, Are women discriminated against for equal
work? Are there differences between men and women among business leaders?
An unexplained gap of about 5%
to 10% for equal work
In discussing the gender wage gap, it is often said that women would gain
equal work 20% to 30% less than men in France, which would, of course, if it
was proven, a absolute scandal.
The parity observatory also takes these raw figures: "The average
annual gross salary of women is lower than for men from 18.9% in the private
sector and semi-public, 37% lower if we integrate the hours of time partial. "
http://www.observatoire-parite.gouv.fr/portail/reperes_statistiques.htm
However, this seems statistically inaccurate, unless it is considered as
equal work simply because of work, regardless of the length, field of activity
and the hierarchical level.
Indeed, the gap of 27% (more for men) is raw and therefore includes
part-time, unlike industry, overtime and responsibility. Technically, the unexplained part, more akin to discrimination by experts
is around 5% (more for men) in France.
It should be noted that that men earn 27% more than women, with 5 points
unexplained, is equivalent to saying that women earn 21.3% less than men, the unexplained portion is then 4.8 points.
|
Table 1 |
||
|
Decomposition of the wage gap in 1997 |
All
employees |
Full-time |
|
Unexplained portion of gender differences |
4.2% |
5.1% |
|
Explained by differences between men and women |
22.8% |
5.6% |
|
Total |
27.0% |
10.7% |
|
Field:
employees (excluding teachers) aged 45 years. Source: EJC 1997, INSEE. |
For more information, consult
the work of a director INSEE Ponthieux Sophie and
Dominique Meurs an economist on the subject:
http://www.insee.fr/fr/ffc/docs_ffc/ES337-338G.pdf
http://www.insee.fr/fr/ffc/docs_ffc/ES398-399f.pdf
In a study of DARES, away "all things being equal" is estimated to be
10 points lower for women in 2006, for a gross difference of 27%. The study states that the individual effects are inadequately addressed in
the proposed model, including the precise characteristics of the position held
by the employee (job, level of responsibility, experience ...) or unobserved
(career breaks, specialty degree , family situation, the effort, the bargaining
power against the employer ...). In other
words, we can not absorb 10% of these unexplained wage gap
to discrimination pure.
Besides, experts agree
that this unexplained part, sometimes falsely equated with pure discrimination
is greatly reduced. This is the case of Sophie Ponthieux INSEE Administrator:
"Sophie Ponthieux: Going back to our distinction between"
pure discrimination "and structural factors, it appears that there is
much left to win on the policy side of equal pay for" equal work ". In other words, it is not necessary to make war
on this land, it is already practically won. "
http://www.inegalites.fr/spip.php?article675
Even Helen Périvier, partisan "discriminationnisme" (discrimination theory that explains most of the
social phenomena of a group or socio-economic position, in this case women),
recognizes that the structural effects explain the Most of the wage gap. However, it
erroneously equates the unexplained part to discrimination. But the bottom line
here is that it recognizes that 6% to 7% of the variance is discriminatory (in
fact unexplained).
"Helen Périvier: We can say that discrimination exerted
against women on the labor market are numerous. Their roots are
anchored in the organization of society. But the most obvious being felt on wages,
which reflect the unequal situation of women and men in the labor market. One can observe that
the average monthly wage gap between women and men is 25%, and it does not move
for ten years. Half of this
difference is due to differences in working time between men and women. Women are more often part-time.
When they are full
time, they work fewer hours, stay late at the office unless, for example. And these differences
in working time account for half of the wage gap. One third of this difference is explained by
the type of job held by women, since they are concentrated in lower paying
sectors: social, education, for example. And there is one quarter of the gap
wages, it is the result of pure discrimination. So we can say that the
labor market, wages focuses all discrimination against women are subjected. "
In the 2005 report done by Marie-Jo Zimmermann on behalf of the delegation
of women's rights and equal opportunities.
One can read on page 5:
"These laws have been applied very modestly and persistently
high wage differentials between men and women (25% of mean and 5%
residual variance corresponding to real discrimination) has alerted
the authorities. "
http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/12/pdf/rap-info/i2243.pdf
Say that women earn 27% less than men, whose 10 points unexplained, means
that men earn 37% more than women, whose 11.1 points unexplained.
http://www.travail-emploi-sante.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/2008.10-44.5.pdf
Researchers at the University
of Evry evoke a discriminatory difference of 3% to 10%.
http://www.univ-evry.fr/fr/index/Epee/EPEE/composition/ppetit/CdE_68.pdf
It should be noted, moreover, a journalist Marianne, whose idea is to
expose the precariousness of immigrants, based on the work of INSEE wrote:
"Normally," all things being equal ", it should not show any
difference between immigrants. In fact, if. The income gap of European immigrants falls to -7%
compared to non-immigrants. Suffice to
say almost nothing. "
Then 5% to 10% for the gender gap?
http://www.marianne2.fr/hervenathan/Immigration-des-faits-et-des-chiffres_a29.html?com
The Ministry of Labour
of the United States (U.S. Department of Labor) conducted a study on
wage differentials: it leads to the conclusion that most if not all of the
discrepancy is explained by factors other than discrimination :
"Although additional research in this area is needed Clearly, this
study leads to the unambiguous conclusion of That the differences in the
compensation of men and women are the result of a multitude of factoring and the
raw wage gap That Should not Be Used to have The Basis justify
corrective action. Indeed, There may Be nothing to
correct. The differences in raw salaire Be Almost
Entirely may the result of the Individual choices made by Being
Both male and female workers. "
http://www.the-spearhead.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/03/Gender-Wage-Gap-Final-Report.pdf
The Canadian Parliament also leads to the conclusion that this is not
discrimination that explains the pay gap:
"Despite the illegality
of direct discrimination, the wage gap between women and men persists in
Canada. As stated by the Canadian labor economist Morley Gunderson:" It
does not seem to be a single dominant factor that explains the discriminatory
wage disparities. Nevertheless, the sum of small factors can eventually exert a
powerful influence binding. "As we have seen, two determinants of the wage
gap are that women are concentrated in a small number of groups 'low-paying
jobs and the fact that women are more likely than men to make arrangements to
balance paid work and unpaid work. "
http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/ResearchPublications/2010-30-f.htm
Here is an excerpt of the
report edifying of the European Commission called the pay gap between women and
men in Europe from a legal perspective:
"At EU
level," the pay gap between women and men "is defined as the relative
difference in average gross hourly earnings of women and men for the whole economy
.15 This indicator is defined as
"unadjusted" because it has not been adjusted for individual
characteristics that may partially explain the wage gap. These individual characteristics include, among others, the choice of
traditional training and careers of men and women, the imbalance between men
and women in terms of sharing family responsibilities that men and women still
tend working in different sectors, the part-time work, which is often highly
feminised; etc.16
As a result,
the pay gap between women and men "Unadjusted" - also called gap
"absolute" or "gross" - covers both a possible pay discrimination and
pay differences resulting from factors that are unrelated to discrimination
itself, but that may explain, at least in part, the difference. The gap "corrected" or "net" covers, in contrast, the
share of the pay gap that can not be explained and which is widely assumed to arise from discrimination in
the strict sense of the law.
The Government of the
Netherlands has explicitly stated that the pay gap "corrected" or
"net" could not, in his opinion, be considered as wage
discrimination. While the
"pay discrimination" is a legal concept, the pay gap
"corrected" or "net" is the result of a calculation based
on several statistical factors leading to a general idea of the situation in
different
market sectors travail.17
For purposes
of this legal relationship, national experts were asked to focus on the net
difference to the extent that this is the part of the pay gap (unadjusted) that
lawyers are seeking to reduce or to eliminate. It is clear
however that in some cases, the border between gap unadjusted and adjusted gap
is very thin, because it also depends on the amount of information available
about employee groups studied. Also aimed
to analyze the possible connections with other areas of national law (Labour) -
measures regarding leave, part-time work and atypical forms of work including -
this report can also be seen as an exercise to transfer parts of the pay gap
"adjusted" or "net" to the pay gap "unadjusted"
or "absolute" and thus make them more likely to be legislative
solutions. "
The UK also, economist John Shackleton leads to similar conclusions in Should
we mind the gap?.
http://femtech.at/fileadmin/downloads/Wissen/Themen/Geld_regiert_die_Welt/should_we_mind_the_gap.pdf
Michael Scholar, Chairman of
the statistical authority responsible for ensuring the proper use of official
statistics, has written to various governmental and parliamentary authorities
to rein in the misuse of statistics about the wage gap. In his
letter, he emphasizes the formal statements or presentations are likely to
mislead the public about the real meaning of these figures.
Here is an excerpt from his
letter of August 7, 2009:
"On 11
June I wrote to the Minister for Women and Equality, the Rt Hon. Harriet
Harman QC MP to express concern over the Way in Which the Figure 22.6 per one
hundred HAD has beens Used in Government Equalities Office Press Release. In the view
of the Statistics Authority estimate this Particular, When
Used on Its Own without qualification, Risks Giving a misleading quantification
of the gender pay gap [...].
It Would Be
Easy year mistake for a casual reader from the Foreword to Conclude That
overalls if the gender pay gap stands at 22.6 per cent and the full-time gender
pay gap stands at 12.8 per cent, then the part-time gender pay gap must
considerably Be Greater Than 22.6 per cent. Indeed, the Foreword Appears
to confirm just sa situation concluding When It states
that 'pay gaps are Even Greater for part-time workers (39.9 per cent)'. The casual
reader Would Be Surprised to Learn That median hourly earnings then of women
and of men (EXCLUDING overtime) are very close, with women's median pay
Actually Being Slightly Higher Than Men's (by 3.4 per cent).
While the
Foreword to Shaping the Future Refers to 39.9 per one hundred year estimate as
of the pay gap for part-time workers, it Does not
explain what this is a measure of. "
http://www.statisticsauthority.gov.uk/reports---correspondence/correspondence/index.html
Here is an excerpt from his
letter of August 11, 2009:
"Limitations
of Measures of the Gender Pay Gap
22. The 2008
ASHE release states the Following:
"Although
median and mean hourly pay EXCLUDING overtime Provide Useful comparisons of
men's and women's earnings, They Do not reveal differences in rates of pay for
comparable jobs. Because this
is do not allow Such Measures for the different emploi Characteristics of men
and women, Such as the proportion in different occupations and Their length of time in jobs. "
23. We Agree
with major thesis Qualifying remarks highlight Which Some of the limitations of
Measures summary of the gender pay gap and the Difficulties in Providing a full
like-for-like comparison Between Men's and women's earnings. Although the
Estimates of the gender pay gap presented in this paper Have value, They Do not
control for some factoring Such as occupation and length of time in jobs Which
are Likely to Have a differential impact on the earnings of women and of men. These
limitations Need To Be terminal in Mind When
considering the extents to Which Measures of the gender pay gap and inequality
provide statement evidence of discrimination in the labor market. "
A pay gap much stronger among
people on their own account
It is now turn to the thorny issue of average performance of men and women
at work and wage gaps. The field analysis is France.
Indeed, the prevailing view tends to equate all of the
wage gap to outright discrimination. While the
discrimination must be combated with the utmost firmness,
that differences remain "objective" performance can legally
justify differences in pay. While the
wage gap is partly explained by discrimination, which must be combated and
punished, the fact remains that other factors explain the discriminatory wage
gaps. It is therefore to highlight before asserting that they can only be
explained by sexism.
It has already been shown that the gender wage gap is largely explained by
objective factors: overtime, part-time, industry, level of responsibility,
skill level, seniority etc. ... We therefore reduced
from 27% of gross deviation less than 5% of unexplained part (and more for
men). It is this unexplained part which can be equated to discrimination.
But this unexplained part in the work mentioned does not mean that there is
no explanation in the absolute. In other
words, the 4% or 5% (for men and more or less for women) may not be entirely
due to discrimination. This is what
is needed now try to analyze.
To do this, we will proceed by reasoning by contradiction, assuming that
the wage gap is due solely to discrimination. In other
words, it is the employer who discriminates against women. In this assumption, the only way to have the wage gap "without
discrimination" is to consider the pay gap between men and women who have
no employer: it is those who work their own account.
We will refer to the work of
the National Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies, INSEE in the
magazine FIRST No. 954 in March 2004.
http://www.insee.fr/fr/ffc/docs_ffc/ip951.pdf
"On one hand, according to sector or equivalent, they earn less than
their male counterparts and secondly, they are relatively more numerous in
functions and in the lower paying sectors. In 2001,
they earned an average of 29,500 euros net per year or one-third less than the
leaders. Their situation has improved somewhat over time as the gap was 39% in 1993. If we eliminate the effects of industry, size, legal form and age, the
salary of the ruling remains 20% lower than the leaders and this gap is
stronger than for all employees (12 %). In younger
generations, these differences in wages are lower. "
In other words, leaders therefore earn 49.3% more than the leaders. If we eliminate the effects of industry, size, legal form and age,
executive pay is 25% higher than that of the ruling and this gap is stronger
than for all employees (13 , 6%).
This work and tables show that even women who have no hierarchy (eg less
than 10 employees) and who are under 30 years earn less than men on average in
the same area! As for the gross pay gap of 27% among employees in favor of men, it rises
to 115.8% for the bosses of textile, clothing and footwear. The pay gap between men and women is even 121.9% for legal professionals. In other words, men earn twice their female peers, without this huge
difference is discussed in the debate on wage discrimination. The statistics say nothing about overtime of these leaders, their
risk-taking, their motivation, their capital, the quality of their management.
|
Table 2 |
|||||||
|
Earned income in thousands of euros of
non-employees (managers and professionals) by sex |
|||||||
|
Industry |
Total |
H |
F |
gap H / F |
Share of
zero earnings |
Number of
non-employees |
Share of women |
|
Legal
activities |
102 |
132.6 |
59.8 |
121.9 |
2.7 |
51.1 |
42.0% |
|
Textiles,
clothing, chausssure |
16 |
23.6 |
10.9 |
115.8 |
13.6 |
7.2 |
59.8% |
|
Paramedic, dentist, nurse, physiotherapist,
laboratory |
48 |
64.9 |
35.9 |
80.8 |
2.8 |
187.1 |
58.3% |
|
Financial
services, insurance, post |
66.4 |
70.9 |
39.5 |
79.6 |
10.7 |
24.4 |
14.3% |
|
Rental
services |
27.2 |
29.6 |
17.4 |
69.7 |
33.9 |
5.6 |
19.7% |
|
Industry excluding textile, clothing and
footwear |
27.4 |
29 |
17.3 |
67.2 |
10.8 |
74.9 |
13.7% |
|
Food
industry (IAA) industrial |
27.9 |
29.8 |
17.8 |
67.2 |
8.4 |
8.3 |
15.8% |
|
Doctors
and hospital activities |
78.6 |
89 |
54.7 |
62.7 |
1.8 |
121.8 |
30.3% |
|
Other business services (accounting,
consulting, temporary ...) |
37.9 |
41.3 |
26.2 |
57.8 |
15.9 |
188.9 |
22.5% |
|
Funeral and care of the deceased |
40.7 |
43.7 |
28.5 |
53.1 |
8.2 |
1.2 |
19.7% |
|
Education,
excluding higher |
19.6 |
22.9 |
15 |
52.8 |
10.4 |
23 |
41.8% |
|
LPN artisanal butcher, butcher, baker, pastry |
29.5 |
31.1 |
20.5 |
51.6 |
6.2 |
36.6 |
15.1% |
|
Landlord
and Tenant |
41.3 |
44.1 |
29.2 |
51.1 |
30.7 |
21 |
18.8% |
|
Real estate activities, renting out |
41 |
45.1 |
30.8 |
46.5 |
27 |
27 |
28.7% |
|
Wholesale
trade |
30.8 |
33 |
22.8 |
44.7 |
19.1 |
60.1 |
21.6% |
|
Services artistic, cultural and sporting |
15 |
16.3 |
11.7 |
39.2 |
16.5 |
51.9 |
28.3% |
|
Other personal services (hairdressing, beauty,
laundry ...) |
14.8 |
18.3 |
13.6 |
34 |
8.5 |
84.3 |
74.5% |
|
Trade perspective, orthopedics and ambulance |
45 |
48.3 |
36.5 |
32.5 |
8.2 |
7.6 |
28.0% |
|
Transport
services |
27.7 |
28.6 |
21.7 |
31.7 |
12 |
27.1 |
13.0% |
|
Retail
business |
18.4 |
20.1 |
15.7 |
28 |
12.6 |
242.9 |
38.6% |
|
Hotel,
cafe, restaurant |
21.9 |
23.7 |
18.7 |
26.9 |
14.1 |
142.5 |
36.0% |
|
Building,
public works |
28.6 |
28.8 |
22.7 |
26.7 |
6 |
249.1 |
3.3% |
|
Pharmacy |
97.8 |
109.2 |
87.7 |
24.4 |
2.9 |
25.2 |
53.0% |
|
Computer Services and Research &
Development |
26.2 |
26.7 |
21.8 |
22.4 |
20.6 |
19.9 |
10.2% |
|
Automotive
trade and repair |
27.1 |
27.5 |
22.9 |
20.1 |
10.5 |
44.6 |
8.7% |
|
Extractive
industry |
34.5 |
35 |
29.7 |
17.8 |
15 |
0.4 |
9.4% |
|
Taxis |
16.2 |
16 |
18.4 |
-13.1 |
3.1 |
26.3 |
8.3% |
|
Together |
36.4 |
39.8 |
28.7 |
38.6 |
10.2 |
1766 |
30.6% |
|
Source: INSEE, based
Self-employed, 2005. author's calculations |
|||||||
A productivity differential
between men and women suggested by the differences in performance of
individuals on their own account
But, implicitly (and certainly not explicitly) productivity is addressed
(output per head). Productivity is a fundamental
concept in economics. For a boss, the
link between pay and productivity is more direct because it is itself fixed
remuneration based on the results of his company.
But, so defined, the average productivity of male leaders is greater than that
of women leaders in industry and age equivalent. In all
cases, it is unrealistic for firms without associates, with a (an) officer (e)
young.
Besides, everyone can see that
female managers earn more than women leaders in 2001, which is less often the
case for men. This is the paradox of wage discrimination: women are more interested in
being employed by companies that discriminate against them than being on their
own account.
http://www.insee.fr/fr/ffc/docs_ffc/ip951.pdf
http://insee.fr/fr/ffc/docs_ffc/ref/revaind09c.PDF
Thus the unexplained part, equated with discrimination among employees can be
for non-employees. However, the pay gap between
men and women "all things being equal" is at best comparable
employees in the categories and non-employees, at worst greater among the
self-employed than among employees. This is
likely to restrict significantly from discrimination in the wage gap, it seemed
quite marginal.
It is thus interesting to note that the gap "no boss" is even
more important that the gap "with the boss." We can
reasonably assume that the proportion of unexplained wage gap of 4% or 5% is
partly explained by these differences in performance or salary requirement. Aside from performance, the other reason could be advanced, in fact, is the
fact that women are less demanding compensation: they pay less, less hard
bargain wage increases, as suggested by the aforementioned study of DARES .
One limitation of the proof lies in the number of hours, women bosses can work
less because of family responsibilities. In the
article Men - women, differences in income for non-sensitive employees of the
magazine INSEE reference Earned income independents - 2009 Edition, you can
read on page 38: "Another source of INSEE employment survey, the usual
weekly working time of a non-employee working full-time rises (in 2006-2007) to
51 hours against 56 for men. By
integrating this dimension "time" the gap becomes close to what is
observed among full-time employees. "
http://insee.fr/fr/ffc/docs_ffc/ref/revaind09c.PDF
http://insee.fr/fr/ffc/docs_ffc/ref/revaind09c.PDF
http://www.pme.gouv.fr/informations/editions/etudes/bref_30_1eme_19mar_bd.pdf
This shows that the effect of "quantity time" (9.8% of weekly
hours for men, ie -8.9% for women according to INSEE), explains some of the
difference in pay. Taking this into account, per
capita productivity is higher in men, partly because of the increased hours of
work.
As for hourly productivity,
the effect is "quality time", it seems also
higher in men, since the wage differential in hourly equivalent proportion
persists, as in full-time employees. Remember
that this differential is 10.7% (more for men) with 5.1 points unexplained and
related to discrimination (see ECONOMY AND STATISTICS No. 337-338, 2000 - 7/8
page 145).
http://www.insee.fr/fr/ffc/docs_ffc/ES337-338G.pdf
In the article Men - women, differences in income for non-sensitive
employees of the magazine INSEE reference Earned income independents - 2009
Edition, you can read on page 39:
"The difference is important for physicians, the order of 60%. A study of GPs Drees on sector 1 (sector agreement),
the income gap between men and women is 34% for men. This
difference is mainly due to the number of procedures performed by doctors: on
average, female physicians are absent one day a week more than men and perform
fewer acts per day (see file "The total income activity of physicians with
a liberal ")."
Male physicians and 60% earn more than their counterparts while GPs earn
34% more. Women doctors earn 37.5% less so than their counterparts, women GPs earning
25.4% less than men.
There is much in this field
there are firstly, the quantity effect time or the duration of labor
productivity increases by a male head but on the other hand, the effect or
quality time hourly productivity, since the number of acts, is more important
for the same unit of time. Clearly, the
"performance" generates an hourly income differential in favor of
men, still on average, of course.
INSEE said that the companies
created by women survive less well:
"For quality and project
profile and identical age, women are less successful. The choice of activity,
the level of resources invested, the diploma or using at the time of the
creation thus insufficient to explain the lower survival of businesses started
by women. elements outside the company such as the
compatibility of family and professional life may be the cause of this
difference. "
http://www.insee.fr/fr/ffc/docs_ffc/ip1064.pdf
These results are consistent
with the work of economist Jessica Wolpaw Reyes U.S.. Focusing on the wage gap between male and female gynecologists in the
United States, Jessica Wolpaw Reyes shows that differences can be explained
almost entirely by differences in productivity and differentiated practices. It leads to the explicit conclusion that there is no wage gap when women
work as many hours, many patients receive and carry the same medical
procedures.
"The Above results
Indicate That female obstetrician-Gynecologists
Receive Incomes That Are Substantially lower (20-25% lower) Than Their
Counterparts male. However, the gender gap in revenu is Significantly Reduced
When differences in Practice Characteristics and physician are taken Into
account productivité . In Fact, Among the Young
Physicians share of the gender gap revenu That Could
not Be Explained by Differences in Characteristics productivité Fell so much
gold around the turn of the century That It Was Statistically insignificant by
2002. This is the MOST consoling or finding of the this
analysis: according to the Most Recent data available, male and female
obstetrician-Gynecologists Who practice in The Same Manner APPEAR to Receive
The Same Incomes. Gender Does not Matter. It is Only
When female obstetrician-Gynecologists choose less viable financially rewarding
practice arrangements or do less (see Fewer patients, Fewer work hours, perform
procedures Fewer) That THEY earn lower Incomes. "
The consultant Graef Crystal says that women with high levels of
responsibility earn less for reasons unrelated to discrimination (level of
responsibility, company size, seniority, experience). But, when
rigorously control these factors, there is no
discrimination in the American case.
"There's
no truth to assertions Simply That female senior executives are discriminated
Against Being In Their Pay."
http://www.equilar.com/NewsArticles/100803_bloomberg.pdf
Surprisingly, this is what
wage differential due to a productivity differential, which arouses indignation,
as here:
"A figure speaks for itself: the average total earnings of women is 27% lower than men's. One of many examples cited in the
2011 Salary Guide is a difference of 35% in commercial functions, particularly
because the variable part of remuneration. "
The variable part of the
business functions corresponds precisely to the performance of business. The more they sell, they earn more money. This is a
question of motivation: to work uneven, unequal pay. Discrimination
does not make sense here as it would have a disincentive to both positively
discriminated for those who would negatively.
Maria Stanfors, Tim Leunig, Björn Eriksson and Tobias Karlsson in their article
Gender, Productivity and the Nature of Work and
Pay: Evidence from the Late Nineteenth-Century Tobacco Industry, concluded that wage differentials between men and women paid piece in the
tobacco industry are explained by individual characteristics. If they are paid on time half of the gap would be unexplained and therefore
discriminatory.
http://cep.lse.ac.uk/pubs/download/dp1053.pdf
Trond Petersen, Vemund
Snartland and Eva M. Milgrom Meyersson in Article Are Female Workers Less
Productive Than Male Workers? Productivity
and the Gender Wage Gap indicates
that one third of the wage gap is discriminatory while two thirds are due to
differential productivity when workers are paid piece.
The work
done by CREST in France to conclude a lower productivity of women from 11% in
industry and 7% in other sectors, discrimination being respectively 3% and 2%. There would be little or no
discrimination wage.
"Overall, our method
leads to the conclusion of France in That There Is No or little
gender wage
discrimination. Confirmed this is using the
two-equation approach of
NST: women are less Than Paid
men aim to hold APPEAR aussi less productive jobs. "
http://www.crest.fr/ckfinder/userfiles/files/Pageperso/crepon/CreponDeniauPerezDuarte2002.pdf
A publication on productivity
differences between men and women in Belgium concluded that the productivity
gap between men and women is 5% to 8%. Wage
discrimination is not proven.
http://perso.uclouvain.be/vincent.vandenberghe/Papers/Gender_wage_discrimination_Labour.pdf
The recommendations leave no
doubt on the willingness of Pascale Petit, economist, to promote women.
Yet she writes in discrimination
in hiring: an audit study in pairs in the financial sector: "However,
our study shows that this result is not related to an aversion of employers for
women, but their anticipation an average female productivity and lower
labor costs higher average female, in this age group. "
http://www.discriminations.inegalites.fr/IMG/pdf/Revue_Economique.pdf
Despite all this work, we find
economists to explain: "The measure of productivity is something quite
difficult, especially when trying to make a difference between the productivity
of men and women. Both segments being in different labor market, the
productivity measure is hardly comparable. "
So you can not measure
productivity because men and women are in different sectors.
But the same person tells us,
in the same interview: "In areas where women are present, such as early
childhood sector, since it is the relay of family work that women have to
within their own families, men are discriminated against in hiring. It is very
difficult for a man to be recruited in a manger, because of the reluctance of
parents to see a man taking care of their child. We see the heavy weight of
tradition and stereotypes that play here against man. In these areas, in
contrast, women are very active, less discriminated against. "
In contrast to discrimination,
it is suggested that women are discriminated against in areas where there would
be men and women.
In the interview, it is
difficult to understand how the fact that a woman working full time, stay late
at the office less, constitutes discrimination.
Anne-Marie Le Pourhiet:
"The existence of a discriminatory intent is often effectively
impossible to prove, simply because it does not exist, but the silent
qualitative and objective reasons for this situation quantitatively, as simple
and obvious as they are in up to establish presumptions of discrimination
solely on the basis of statistics. "
http://constitutiolibertatis.hautetfort.com/files/discrimination-positive.pdf
"Seeing that there are few descendants of North African immigrants or
African Polytechnic little or disabled at the Paris bar or no women on the
scaffolding of the façade renovation of buildings or behind garbage trucks does
not necessarily cry out to injustice and discrimination. Must still agree to consider
things with good faith and realism instead to do with sectarianism and opportunism
ideologue activist. [...] It is
not forbidden for women to boycott the building trades and their lack of sites
is not necessarily indicative of hidden discrimination. "
The wage gap by PCS
The raw wage gap unexplained or is not following the same profession and
social category. In the private sector, the
gross difference is 30% higher for men than women executives
executives in 2009. This gap is 16% for
intermediate occupations, 10% for employees and 22% for manual workers. When is restricted to persons working full-time the gap is narrowing.
|
Pay gap H / F (full) |
Frames |
Associate
professionals |
Employees |
Workers |
Together |
|
|
Unexplained
part |
4.4 |
4.1 |
6 |
10.9 |
5.1 |
|
|
Portion
explained |
7.7 |
3 |
4.9 |
8.4 |
5.6 |
|
|
Total
deviation |
12.1 |
7.1 |
10.9 |
19.3 |
10.7 |
|
|
% Share
unexplained |
36% |
58% |
55% |
56% |
48% |
|
|
% Share
explained |
64% |
42% |
45% |
44% |
52% |
|
|
Field:
employees aged 45 or less (excluding teachers) working full time. Source: EJC 1997, INSEE. |
||||||
|
Deviation Compensation H / F (time not
included) |
Employees |
Non-employees |
||||
|
Unexplained
part |
13.6 |
25 |
||||
|
Portion
explained |
11.4 |
24.3 |
||||
|
Total
deviation |
25 |
49.3 |
||||
|
% Share
unexplained |
54% |
51% |
||||
|
% Share
explained |
46% |
49% |
Source: INSEE, author's calculations,
2001
http://www.insee.fr/fr/ffc/docs_ffc/ES337-338G.pdf
http://www.insee.fr/fr/ffc/docs_ffc/ES398-399f.pdf
The gross hourly wage gap does
not take into account the type of hours worked (overtime, night work)
Three quarters of people who work nights are men. However,
night work is better paid than the day job.
The share of employees receiving overtime or complementary among men is
39.9% against 25.2% for women. However,
overtime is better paid than the additional hours that are better paid than
regular hours.
http://www.travail-emploi-sante.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/2008.10-44.5.pdf
DARES says:
"In 2009, 53% of men received pay for overtime (or complementary,
for part-time employees) against 37% of women (Table 2). Gross hourly earnings of overtime or additional made by women
is 17% lower on average than men (4). This is due
in part to the basic hourly wage of women is
lower average than men. Accordingly,
the remuneration of their hours
extra or additional, proportional to the basic hourly wage is generally lower. This is also related to the fact that nearly a third of women with hours
are paid extra or additional part-time, against 5% of men (proportions similar
to those observed in the overall employed population). However,
only the additional hours beyond 10% of the term of the contract (5) shall be
increased (at 25%). For full-time employees,
overtime, however, are compensated at a higher rate of about 25% from the first
hour (6). "
http://www.travail-emploi-sante.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/2012-016-2.pdf
A wage gap for equal work more
than 20% of public knowledge is illogical
Wage discrimination for equal
work (generalized mass u) is an economic and legal aberration.
In a market economy, if women were paid 20% to 30% less for equal work, men are
often unemployed: there would be a "relocation" site for women
heavily employed. And indeed men would find
themselves obliged to have lower wage demands to remain competitive.
In a democratic state of law which prohibits discrimination and ensures freedom
of association, there would be hundreds of thousands of lawsuits, millions of
referrals to the HALDE (or advocate) and multiple interventions of labor
inspection ...
Discrimination (for equal work) and high mass scale is illogical economically
and legally.
The American economist Thomas Sowell wrote: "You know, if it was
really true That You Could hire a woman for Three
quarters of what you Could hire a man with Exactly The Same qualifications,
then Employers Would Be crazy not to hire all women. It Would Be insane to hire men. Not only insane Would It Be, It Would
Probably put them out of the business Because The Ones That Were smart enough
to hire women Would Have Such a cost advantage That It Would Be really hard for
The Others to compete. "
The myth of the glass ceiling
Women are victims of the glass
ceiling. This idea is in the preparatory report on the consultation with social
partners on professional equality between men and women (compared Gresy 2009).
The Dutch economic journalist
Marike Stellinga in his book published in 2009 From
myth van het glazen ceiling (The myth of the glass ceiling) refutes myth
said, from a survey conducted in the Netherlands and Norway). His investigation reveals that women do not usually have the same
aspirations, since they give a little less emphasis on their careers. 75% of women part-time and 78% satisfied with the division of tasks with
their partner (p.63 and p.115). Very
ambitious women would be a minority who do not meet generally sexist obstacle
in their career.
Marike Stellinga was received at the Belgian Parliament where she presented the
results of its investigation.
http://www.dekamer.be/FLWB/pdf/53/0211/53K0211004.pdf
http://www.blog-emploi.com/index.php/post/2009/10/26/Le-plafond-de-verre,-a-myth
The British sociologist
Catherine Hakim tells various myths including that of the glass ceiling that
hid indeed different career choices, in Feminist myths and magic medicine.
Helena Cronin points out:
"To determine the main obstacle, one must first understand the difference
between what men and women choose when they have little choice, without
discrimination. There are few women in some areas where admission criteria for
career advancement or are completely impartial and scientific - mathematics,
for example. So there are a lot in the humanities or sectors
"softer", where prejudice can easily play yet. What proof is there
that this is due to a glass ceiling that few women in math? "
http://www.lactualite.com/20080917_122222_31192
Eileen Trzcinski and Elke Holst Gender Differences in Subjective Well-Being in
and out of
Management positions indicate that there is no difference in subjective well-being
of women in senior level and women working in managerial positions in the case
of Germany:
"Our results Indicated That a clear hierarchy exists for men in term of
how status
Within the labor market associated with WAS subjective life satisfaction. Unemployed Men Were the least satisfied, Followed by Men Who Were Not in the labor market, while men in leadership positions
Reported The Highest level of subjective life satisfaction. For women, no significant differences Statistically
Were Observed Among women in high-level managerial positions, women Who Worked
in non-high-level positions, and women Who Specialized in Household production,
with no market work. Only Women
Who Were Reported unemployed lower Levels of life satisfaction, Compared with
Other women in labor-market statuses. Our results
lend evidence to the contention That Men can "have it all", women
must still choose goal Between career and family in
Germany. "
http://www.diw.de/documents/publikationen/73/diw_01.c.356386.de/dp998.pdf
The sociologist Steven
Goldberg in The inevatibility of patriarchy refers to the male tendency to seek
positions of power.
http://lilt.ilstu.edu/gmklass/foi/readings/patriarchygoldberg.htm
Women are very likely not feel job discrimination
The thesis of Discrimination against women is battered by HALDE.
In 2010, after a massive awareness campaign, the High Authority collects 615
complaints about 12,239,000 of employed women in France: 0.005%
http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=NATnon03177
In 2009, the High Authority has produced and distributed 1.5 million copies
of a pamphlet for employers and their employees on the prevention of
discrimination because of pregnancy. There were
only 126 complaints in 2008.
http://www.halde.fr/IMG/pdf/RA_Halde_2010.pdf
Faced with few complaints, presumably to prove that there was still
discrimination HALDE requested an investigation.
http://www.halde.fr/IMG/pdf/Sondage_Femmes_et_discriminations_au_travail_HALDE_CSA.pdf
When asked do you feel they have been discriminated against because you are
a woman to get a raise? 20% answered
yes, 69% no, the rest not affected. Same answers
to the question about obtaining a position at level of responsibility.
70% to 80% of women did not feel they have been discriminated against in
pay or promotions. The figure is even higher in
the case of employment discrimination: 84% to 92% did not feel they have been
discriminated against.
The feeling of being discriminated against because of pregnancy is even
lower.
In total, 34% feel they have been discriminated against at work for any reason,
66% not having that feeling.
Can it be said that under
these conditions is discrimination that largely explains the wage gap?
We are inclined to think not.
But it is clear that by trumpeting everywhere that there is discrimination
against women, they will eventually have the feeling of being discriminated
against: this is called an artifact (a phenomenon created from scratch by the
experimental conditions).
Political equality does not imply a parity of interest or political
commitment
Political parity was allegedly necessary because of alleged discrimination,
again, women. Anne-Marie Le Pourhiet, constitutional lawyer, talks about this in 2004:
"The tracking method is usually used in a purely quantitative approach and
elementary arithmetic enough: if there is" only "11% of women
deputies in the National Assembly, for instance, that suffices to conclude that
a practice partisan sexist and discriminatory. Similarly if there is
"only" three or four women presidents or prefects, it is necessarily
because of trends "androcentric" conscious or unconscious, in the
French senior civil service. [. ..] A few months ago, a poll indicated that 14%
of French women said they were "maybe" interested in a political
career. If we remove the 3% who do not ultimately be, it falls to 11%, that is to say exactly the number of women deputies in
the National Assembly. The actual percentage may therefore simply reflect the
wishes and tastes of French. Can we, under these conditions, continue to talk
about sexist practices which women are "victims"? "
http://constitutiolibertatis.hautetfort.com/files/discrimination-positive.pdf
The conclusion is not
necessarily false. But you can not compare 11% of
women MPs (relating to men and women politicians) to 14% of women interested
(referring to all women). We must
therefore estimate the proportion of women among men and women who are
interested or involved in politics.
In a more recent poll, the
question was posed to women: "If you had the possibility and opportunity,
would you be willing to get involved in politics?"
10% responded yes definitely,
yes probably 25%.
http://www.sondages-en-france.fr/sondages/Actualit%
C3% A9/Femmes
The following question was
asked in a poll by the CSA: "If you have a little time and want to dedicate it to exchange,
discuss and take action to provide answers to problems in France you would go
rather ...? "
The CSA said: "Nearly 8 in 10 women (79%) would go into an association
for only 6 out of 10 men (62%), while for engagement in a political party, the
reverse is true with almost 2 10 men (19%) would choose a party for less than 1
in 10 women (7%). For the engagement in a union, the attraction is the same
level for men (12%) and for women (10%). "
Among those interested in
political commitment, so there is 27% women.
The CEVIFOP evokes a real gender gap in terms of interest in
politics: "53% of men against 35% of women express an interest in
politics, a true" gender gap "that confirms the data available on the
issue."
So women represent 40% of
people who say they care about politics.
http://www.cevipof.com/bpf/barometre/vague1/synthese/BPF-V1_R03_DB-BC-JC.pdf
Women represent only 32% of the participants in PS, 35% of the UMP and 40%
in the PC.
A total of 27% to 40% of people interested in politics or ready to commit
or activists are women. This is far
from parity from the start.
Now consider the representation of women in politics.
The share of women elected to municipal councils in 2008 is 34.8% and 13.8%
of women mayors.
http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=NATSOS05509
The share of women elected to councils in 2011 was 13.8%.
http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=NATSOS05508
The share of women elected to regional councils in 2004 was 47.6%.
http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=NATSOS05507
The share of women elected to the National Assembly in 2007 is 18.5% to
41.6% of candidates.
http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=NATSOS05506
The share of women elected to the Senate in 2011 is 21.8%.
http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=partfemmesenat
Representation of women in politics varies from 13.8% to 47.6%. These figures are not far from those expressing interest in politics (27%
to 40% of people interested in politics or ready to commit or activists are
women).
Athletic performance appear to
have an impact on occupational physical activity
In the police, there are 71% men and 29% women.
But the division of labor is different: 85% of field workers are men and 76% of
women among people working in offices. 15% of line
police officers are women.
The overall rate of feminization of the gendarmerie is now at about 13% of
the workforce, against 5% in 2002.
http://www.senat.fr/rap/r07-271/r07-2719.html
Women represent 12% of civilian firefighters.
http://www.senat.fr/rap/l10-655/l10-6551.pdf
Women represent 12% to 20% of marathon runners.
http://marathon-geek.over-blog.fr/
http://entrees-en-lice.over-blog.com/article-36311044.html
You should know that athletic performance of adolescents
14 to 15 years are comparable to professional women. French adolescents 16 to 17 years perform better than the best female
athletes worldwide.
|
Minimal record men of France |
Women (including professional) record for
France |
Women (including professional) world record |
Cadet men record of France |
|
|
100m |
11
"08 |
10'73 |
10'49 |
10'43 |
|
1000m |
2'30'16 |
2'31'93 |
2'28'98 |
2'22'22 |
|
3000m |
8'44'25 |
8'35'41 |
8'06'11 |
8'11'09 |
|
100m
hurdles |
12'85 |
12'56 |
12'21 |
12'05 **** |
|
5000m walk |
23'10'05 |
21'51'70 |
20'02'60 |
21'37'15 |
|
Pole vault |
4.82 m |
4.70 m |
5.06 m |
5.40 m |
|
High jump |
2.10 m |
1.97 m |
2.09 m |
2.20 m |
|
Long jump |
7.12 m |
7.05 m |
7.52 m |
7.83 m |
|
Triple
jump |
15.14 m |
14.69 m |
15.50 m |
15.99 m |
|
Weight 4kg |
19.03 m |
18.68 m |
22.63 m |
19.22 * |
|
Javelin
600g |
62.00 m |
62.53 m |
72.28 m |
79.65 m ** |
|
4kg hammer |
72.40 m |
74.66 m |
79.42 m |
81.84 m
*** |
Source: French Athletics Federation,
2012
For example, compare the one hand, the best performance of small French
male (14-15 years) and younger (16-17 years) and on the other hand, adult women
holding the female world record.
* Weight 5kg
Javelin 700g **
Hammer 5kg ***
**** Estimation from the 110m hurdles
http://www.athledunet.com/Records/Hommes/Outdoor-fra-cadets.htm
http://www.lequipe.fr/Athletisme/REC_OF.html
http://www.athledunet.com/Records/Hommes/Outdoor-fra-minimes.htm
http://www.lequipe.fr/Athletisme/REC_FRA_OF.html
The link between sports
performance and recruitment in the police, the gendarmerie or the fire
reflected in the differentiation of scales. For example,
in swimming 100m breaststroke, men who want to obtain the maximum score of 20
must travel the distance in 1mn32 maximum. For the same
note, women have to travel the distance in 2mn03. A man who
traverses this distance in 2mn03 would get only 13. Similarly
for abdominal pulls, men must make 150 to get the maximum score against 100 for
women. A man who would do 100 push-ups got a rating of 15.
http://www.impactcross-training.fr/library/file/test%
20police.pdf
The biological basis of this performance differential sexed are well known
in the field of sports doping. Sportswomen
of East Germany were being administered male hormones to improve their results. This strategy proved disastrous sporting term for the health of athletes,
not to mention they are contrary to the ethics of sports federations. But what is remembered here is that efficiency in terms of sports results demonstrate the role of biology in the performance
differential between men and women.
http://www.bakchich.info/sport/2008/11/21/et-la-rda-inventa-le-dopage-detat-54158
Recruitment into the police
includes the selection criteria are gender neutral, even in theory, it is the
same work, that is to say equal work. However,
researchers are surprised that in practice, tasks are differentiated.
http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection/JS66-25-1996F.pdf
"However, the return of
the right to power in 2002 reflects a desire to stem the massive recruitment of
women by changing the physical tests for admission to the competition of
peacekeeper (establishment of a common scale for both gender selection
according to body mass index). The latter
is finally removed after union protest. "
One can consult the work of
Genevieve Pruvost From
"sergote" to the female cop. Another
story of the police institution (1935-2005).
http://lectures.revues.org/719
Biology would influence social
phenomena according to scientific work
According to INSEE, the differential in life expectancy between men and
women is partly due to genetic factors:
"Women would have
advantages as biological explaining in part their longer life expectancy (less
genetic diseases, ...), some studies
(bibliography)."
http://www.insee.fr/fr/ffc/ipweb/ip1372/ip1372.pdf
A sex-linked biological advantage can have social consequences ...
"Women have some biological advantages, which should in any
logically make their life between 5% and 7% longer than men.
(Waldron, 1976) "
https://papyrus.bib.umontreal.ca/jspui/bitstream/1866/296/1/a1.1g1019.pdf
Journalist Anne Road
questioned the American researcher, Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, an anthropologist and
primatologist, member of the Academy of Sciences spoke of the maternal
instinct:
"Because we owe to
France, through the theories of Simone de Beauvoir and Elisabeth Badinter, the
hypothesis of the" mother socially constructed "demolishes the
doctrine researcher, replying that in all the primates, investment mother
emerges after some sort of chain reaction, "the complex interactions between
genes, tissues, glands, signs of past experiences and the environment. complex behaviors such as mothering are never entirely
genetically predetermined, or produced as the only environment. "Sarah
Hrdy's work does not oppose nature and nurture, nature and culture. They show
that the maternal instinct is not a summary indestructible instinct, but it
sets up the environment if n ' is not unfavorable.
During pregnancy, is set up a
chain of physiological changes and significant only at birth, neurotransmitters
like oxytocin are released that promote the transformation of the mother. If it is in intimate contact and prolonged contact with this little alien
out of it, its neural circuits are modified to encourage and respond to signals
and requests issued by her child. Once the
mother starts to breastfeed (within 70 hours after birth) and the baby
stimulates her nipples, she becomes even more nourishing. "
The science journalist Peggy Sastre ahead of Darwinian explanations in his
article Why evolution does upset as
feminists? "From cradle to grave, there are cognitive and behavioral
differences statistically significant between the sexes, and it soon obviously
unaware of the level of gene expression, hormone production and neurological
organization.
"
The journalist says:
"Second mistake: lack of understanding of genetic mechanisms. Suggest
a behavior has an evolutionary basis and would be partially embedded in our
genetic variation does absolutely not a hereditary determinism to draw general
conclusions on all male (or all females).
First, the link between a gene
and a trait through gene variants (alleles) that are not present in the whole
population, but to a greater or lesser extent. Then, the
gene expression is modulated by the environment of individuals, starting with
the cell medium (epigenetic modulation).
The same gene does not necessarily produce the same biochemical signals
into the cell. And it does not produce more, at another level, the same behavior in
society. This does not mean that these genes do not have a statistically discernible
influence, when studying an entire population. "
http://www.slate.fr/story/34529/feminisme-evolution-reactions
In 2005, Huntington Willard, one of 250 co-authors of the annotation of the
X chromosome, and in Nature said: "There is not one human genome, but two:
the male genome and the genome female."
http://www.genome.duke.edu/people/faculty/willard/dirmessages/sep_07/
Susan Pinker Canadian
psychologist discusses the differences between men and women among others
related to the brain.
Martha Bridge Denckla, a researcher in neurology at the Kennedy Krieger Institute, described the
differences in brain functioning of men and women. Men have
more gray matter and women more than white matter.
According to David Geary, PhD, professor of psychology at the University of
Missouri, women have an advantage in the field of language.
Martha Bridge Denckla according, boys are more affected by diseases of the type of dyslexia.
The girls would be more
effective for language while boys are more successful in math and spatial
representation. Medical imaging would see
areas that are activated in the brain.
http://www.webmd.com/balance/features/how-male-female-brains-differ
The work of Sonya M. Kahlenberg and Richard W. Wrangham, biology
researchers, show that young male chimpanzees spontaneously play with games
associated with boys while female chimpanzees spontaneously play with games
associated with girls.
These results suggest that sexual behavior would not only cultural origins.
http://www.ts-si.org/files/doi101016jcub201011024.pdf
According to Helena Cronin, is ignorance of the theory of evolution that would
facilitate the thesis of sexism for the overrepresentation of men in the
sciences or areas of high risk-taking and over-representation of women in
literary, health or social.
Helena Cronin says:
"That's tens of thousands
of generations that evolution favors certain characteristics in men - risk
taking, for example - and other women - verbal communication, in particular. It
is perfectly natural that these differences are reflected in people's choices,
right? "
Testosterone have been linked to risk-taking in
financial and career choices.
This conclusion results from the work of Paola Sapienza, Luigi Zingales, and Dario Maestripieri in Gender
Differences in Financial Risk Aversion and Career Choices are Affected by Testosterone
WHO recognizes the positive link between health and productivity.
http://www.who.int/pmnch/topics/maternal/201009_globalstrategy_wch/fr/index2.html
Research makes clear the link between biology and declining productivity:
"
- women are
less productive at work during menstruation. According to a study by Texas Instruments, women's
productivity is reduced by 25% during menstruation. The
pill continuously is a way to increase women's productivity and reduce
absenteeism.
- there is
more absenteeism among girls in school during their menstrual periods. "
http://www.fqpn.qc.ca/contenu/autresdossiers/fiches/menstruations.php
Performance differences in verbal and logical-mathematical sciences, as well
as different interests
The former president of
Harvard University economist Larry Summers spoke on
the role of IQ in the
underrepresentation of women in the hard sciences, especially mathematics and
physical sciences. While women perform better in
the verbal part, men do better in areas of computing and spatial representation.
http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/apa_01.html
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/22/8801
The philosopher Helena Cronin
Darwinian from the London School of Economics, talks about the difference in mean and variance in most items mathematics
and spatial representations. Men are
overrepresented at the extremes. In other
words, there are more men with low IQ and high IQ. In
particular, this trend would be found in the hard sciences (mathematics,
physics) but also in the spatial representation. Thus, we
count 13 boys for every girl in the best in mathematics. The goal would differ also in trend (see the sociologist Steven Goldberg in
The inevatibility of patriarchy that evokes
the male tendency to seek positions of power). Women are
more likely to engage in activities to help others, or in a relational communication. Thus even in the top one percent (1%) of the most talented women in
mathematics, only one in eight career in this field,
in engineering or materials science. Others are
moving in medicine, biology, law and even in the humanities, typical areas to help
others.
Note, however, that the
overrepresentation of men in high IQ does not preclude the fact that it is a
woman who has the highest IQ in the world: Marilyn vos Savant.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2005/mar/12/gender.comment
Men have an average advantage
in spatial representations and numerical skills, yet these faculties play a key
role in engineering and mathematics.
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/22/8801
93% of the successful
candidates Lépine, which reward innovations
in science and technology are male.
The largest variance is
observed male from the age of 10 years.
http://www.iapsych.com/articles/arden2006.pdf
Men are overrepresented at the extremes math: twice as many boys as girls in
the top one percent of schoolchildren.
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB121691806472381521.html
In the scientific excellence that can be apprehended by the Nobel Prize and
other major awards, the distribution is not parity: 97% men and 3% women. For parity, should be given routinely to women scientists
price for a century.
|
The scientific elite without affirmative
action and no parity |
|||||
|
Nobel Prize and other major awards |
H |
F |
Total |
% H |
% F |
|
Physical |
181 |
2 |
183 |
98.90% |
1.10% |
|
Chemistry |
158 |
4 |
162 |
97.50% |
2.50% |
|
Medicine |
186 |
10 |
196 |
94.90% |
5.10% |
|
Mathematics
(Fields Medal) |
51 |
0 |
51 |
100.00% |
0.00% |
|
Economy |
60 |
A |
61 |
98.40% |
1.60% |
|
Computer
(Turing) |
48 |
2 |
50 |
96.00% |
4.00% |
|
Math / bio / geo / Astronomy (Crafoord) |
52 |
A |
53 |
98.10% |
1.90% |
|
Total |
736 |
20 |
756 |
97.40% |
2.60% |
Source: wikipedia, Nobel
Foundation, author's calculations, 2011
The greater
heterogeneity male coupled with greater risk-taking does not necessarily lead
to positive results for men. 97% of
prisoners are men in 2010. There is therefore only 3% of prisoners who are women. 80% of the homeless are men. There are
more men in the trades dirty, dangerous or unhealthy. These social
data support the idea of a male overrepresentation in the extreme. There are more men at the top of the socioeconomic hierarchy but also more
in the bottom. Supporters of parity evoke very rarely that these statistics indicate a
"glass floor" if you follow their logic.
http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=NATnon05316
http://www.insee.fr/fr/ffc/ipweb/ip1330/ip1330.pdf
Performance differences between men and women in the field of computing and in
the written and oral expression are recognized by the INSEE. INSEE explicitly states that women are better in reading but distanced
numeracy.
"Women are less likely than men to serious difficulties or strong enough
in reading: 11% against 14%. The difference persists if we include partial
difficulties: 17% of them are in trouble or in part marked, against 23% men.
This is the inverse calculation: 11% of men have poor performance, against 16%
of women. The gap in reading performance between men and women are also at the
end of compulsory schooling in framework of the days of call-up to the defense
(JAPD), girls of 17 years experience less difficulty than boys in reading.
International survey (PISA) among students 15 years shows the same trend, Just as the slight male advantage in mathematics. "
http://www.insee.fr/fr/ffc/docs_ffc/ip1044.pdf
INSEE refers explicitly to the
psychometric tests as a tool for understanding intelligence.
http://www.insee.fr/fr/ffc/docs_ffc/ES424-425A.pdf
CREDOC conducted a survey on
financial literacy French. The
proportion of individuals who say they are not at ease in calculation is 16%
for males against 28% in women.
CREDOC posed the following
question: "Suppose you put 100 euros in an account paying 2% a year. You
are no longer any payment on this account and you do not remove more money. How
much will you on your account a year later, after interest payments? "
64% of men have found the right answer against 39% of women. Surprised by the magnitude of this result, CREDOC sought to neutralize the
effects of structure:
"Nothing will work: econometric
models confirm that equal age, occupation comparable, and similar income level
equivalent degree, men are more often the right answer than women."
Moreover, the feeling of
financial literacy is more common in men than in women.
http://www.credoc.fr/pdf/Sou/La_culture_financiere_des_Francais_2011.pdf
These considerations are
consistent with observations regarding the game of chess. The rate decreases as women and as the level rises. These trends
are observed in childhood.
Statistics on the ranking of
chess players from the data presented on the official website of the
International Federation fide.com reveal the under-representation of women, with a decreasing
trend as and as we approach the summit .
In the top 100 chess players of all time, it has only
one wife. The second woman was ranked 252nd rank.
http://www.jeu-echecs.bnpparibas.com/pagetype.php?id=14
#
Here the percentage of players in the best chess players in the world:
|
3000 TOP |
3.2 |
|
2000 TOP |
3.1 |
|
1000 TOP |
2.1 |
|
TOP 100 |
A |
|
TOP 10 |
0 |
Source:
International Federation of chess, author's calculations, 2011
Anne-Marie Le Pourhiet, university
professor of public law adds: "Two" studies "on recent women and
daily press further illustrate the inconsistencies of speech discrimination.
For women journalists, it is shown to First they "usually remain
confined" (assuming a passive external element requires them to do) to
household and family issues. It is therefore concluded the existence of
gender-based assignments in newspaper offices, excluding women subjects
"noble." But when the "researchers" examine the case of readers,
they spot that women read newspapers much less than men because they do not
develop enough the issues of concern, that is to say ... health, education,
culture and leisure. We also learn that newspapers tend to privilege the
discourse of expertise, power and knowledge, to the detriment of "the
experience of close and the evidence "that women are more receptive, and
that they expect most of the press that she" speaks of them "and
that" touched by the emotional and emotion. " and "seekers"
to conclude, again, sexism newspapers. Both findings are telescoped to reach an
incoherent about, but the key to this type of study, is always put in the
position of women victims , whether readers or
journalists here. "
We learn that women, despite their success in school, only 13% of contributors
to Wikipedia, a free
encyclopedia. This lack of parity has led to accusations of sexism. It now refers to measures to increase the share of contributors. But wikipedia is open to
everyone with pseudonyms do not allow to determine the sex of the person.
Women are "more qualified" but not "better
educated"
Women have higher rates of success in the baccalaureate and are more numerous
at the University. But beyond this quantitative
aspect, we must also consider the qualitative dimension: all pathways are not
equal, neither in terms of selection at the entrance or in terms of outlets or
pay on the labor market. The adequacy
of qualifications with positions also conceals its importance.
But we know that men are drawn more often in and academic routes most
profitable, most dangerous and / or with more responsibility while women favor,
more often, comfort and family.
http://lexpansion.lexpress.fr/carriere/promo-hec-1983-ou-en-sont-les-femmes_249723.html?p=3
U.S. journalist Carrie Lukas
discusses this trade-comfortable salary.
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704415104576250672504707048.html
Indeed, it should be noted that most schools or training programs are
selective and difficult, the fewer the women. While women
are more likely to enter higher education (59% in the first cycle, 57% in the
second cycle and 50% in the third round in 2001), they are only 22% in
scientific preparatory classes.
http://www.insee.fr/fr/ffc/docs_ffc/donsoc06i.pdf
http://www-sop.inria.fr/members/Juliette.Leblond/Parite/doc-mixite/diversite-parite.pdf
At ENA, enrollment women account for 37% but only 34% of these while they
represent only 29% of eligible and ultimately 26% of admitted.
At the Polytechnic, among these are 19.5%, but only 16.7% of eligible and
ultimately among admitted they are more than 13.7% for 2001.
At HEC, women represent 51.8% of those registered, but only 48.1% of
eligible and 45.8% of those admitted in 2009.
http://lexpansion.lexpress.fr/carriere/promo-hec-1983-ou-en-sont-les-femmes_249723.html
http://www.evadoc.com/doc/30983/statistiques-concours-hec-2009
Work on performance in high schools show an overrepresentation of men in
extreme and therefore in the most efficient. There would
be a greater dispersion in men. A
competitive environment would favor men while a non-competitive environment would
favor women. This is what emerges from the gender-gap paper
Performance: Does competition matter? Of Evren Örs (HEC School of
Management and CEPR), Frederic Palomino (ENSAE) and
Eloïc Peyrache (HEC School of Management).
http://www.cepr.org/MEETS/wkcn/3/3536/papers/Ors_Palomino_Peyrache.pdf
It is therefore clear that there is a tendency to heavy reduction in the
share of women as and when one rises in difficulty, level and ambition. This process does not stop the course curricula, but extends to
professional life.
Thus, although more often than men graduates, women are on the one hand less
prevalent in sectors most selective or most suitable for the practice of a
trade, and also create less companies.
The DCASPL states that:
"In all of the employed
labor force, women are more educated than men, but among the entrepreneurs that
difference is more pronounced. This does not suggest that women are more
qualified than men to undertake, as level of education is incomplete
information does not informing on the match between qualification and
profession exercised. "
INSEE added that the experience premium on the diploma:
"The lack of experience
seems more discriminating than the lack of a diploma. The degree of the
entrepreneur has a positive impact in the first year, but is no longer a
determining factor in the future. Indeed, the five-year survival of businesses
created by graduates (Definitions) is lower
than that of all creators: 44.5% against 51%. And, although
they are surrounded or seek advice for the implementation of their project.
young with a BTS have higher survival than those
holding a Diploma equivalent General (Bachelor). Graduates represent 8.5% of
entrepreneurs. They create new businesses rather than they resume. They are
strongly committed in business services (computer services, telecommunications,
research and development ...). "
http://www.insee.fr/fr/ffc/docs_ffc/ip1064.pdf
Risk-taking male greater: start-ups, occupational mortality
...
The sense of initiative and willingness to take risks are not distributed
equally shared. Thus, the question "What
prompted you to start your business? "Women
respond less often than men by which they create
entrepreneurial spirit and often by chance. There are
only 30% of female entrepreneurs, including simplified under the status of autoentreprenor (34%). 28% of
entrepreneurs are women, they run 27% of French
companies. According DCASPL, women entrepreneurs are working on average 46 hours per
week as against 54 for men (17.4% of working time for men, ie 14.8% less for
women).
Byrnes, James P.,
Miller, David C. and Schafer, William D. reported differences, for
risk-taking, in Gender Differences in Taking risk: A meta - analysis.
http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=buy.optionToBuy&id=1999-13573-004
Same reasoning "all things being equal", we see that women run
smaller businesses than men. Women have
four times less likely (respectively 7 and 33 times less likely) than men to
lead a company with 1-3 employees (down 4 to 9 employees and 10 employees or
more) rather than a company without employee. Despite a
more consistent risk-taking, the survival of businesses male is larger. Men are 1.2 times more likely to be at the head of their company three
years after the women. Female
entrepreneurship is carried further in the context of the couple or family.
http://www.pme.gouv.fr/informations/editions/etudes/bref_30_1eme_19mar_bd.pdf
Women head of nonprofit
organizations are smaller and less often than men.
But, when control
variables in the wage gap has similar characteristics is not
significant.
Men are twice as likely to be injured at work than
women.
Two thirds of occupational
diseases have resulted in permanent disability contracted by men. 100% of work deaths from occupational diseases, 99% are men, for 2005.
http://cyrille.godonou.free.fr/Questions
20sociales/statistiques%%% 20of% 20accidents 20travail.htm
|
Table 3 |
||||||
|
Occupational
diseases |
# of diseases with stop |
# of diseases
with permanent disability |
# of deaths |
# of days lost |
salaried workforce UNEDIC |
salaried workforce CNAM |
|
Men |
22 920 |
14 427 |
487 |
3201803 |
9072122 |
10151148 |
|
women |
18 427 |
7080 |
6 |
3717527 |
6905748 |
7727108 |
|
total |
41 347 |
21 507 |
493 |
6919330 |
15977870 |
17878256 |
|
Source: CNAM-UNEDIC, author's calculations,
2005 |
||||||
Between 2007 and 2008, 90% to
95% of male deaths at work are
http://www.risquesprofessionnels.ameli.fr/index.php?id=94&no_cache=1&tx_kleedossier_pi1
[file] = 91
|
Occupational
risks by gender, in 1984, 1991, 1998 and 2005 |
|||||||
|
Percentage |
|||||||
|
* Proportion
of employees who report being brought to their work locations to **: |
|||||||
|
Sex |
Year |
Employees (in thousands) |
breathing fumes or dust |
be in contact
with hazardous |
be exposed to
risks of infection |
risk of injury
or accident |
risk of traffic accidents (during labor) |
|
Women |
1984 |
7408 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
4.8% |
|
1991 |
8396 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
9.3% |
|
|
1998 |
9036 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
13.3% |
|
|
2005 |
10 530 |
18.8% |
18.9% |
30.4% |
33.4% |
15.7% |
|
|
Men |
1984 |
10 194 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
26.4% |
|
1991 |
10 406 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
37.4% |
|
|
1998 |
10 481 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
43.3% |
|
|
2005 |
11 720 |
44.6% |
36.6% |
25.2% |
61.4% |
42.9% |
|
|
Together |
1984 |
17 602 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
17.3% |
|
1991 |
18 801 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
24.9% |
|
|
1998 |
19 517 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
29.3% |
|
|
2005 |
22 251 |
32.4% |
28.2% |
27.6% |
48.2% |
30.1% |
|
|
Source: INSEE-DARES,
2005 |
|||||||
http://cyrille.godonou.free.fr/Questions
20sociales/statistiques%%% 20of% 20accidents 20travail.htm
We can say that the world of work is harder for men in terms of health. More severe the disease and there are men.
In contrast, women have a greater share of lost days, including days lost
to illness.
|
Table 4 |
||||||
|
Distribution of diseases between men and women |
# of diseases with stop |
# of diseases
with permanent disability |
# of deaths |
# of days lost |
number of employees |
|
|
Men |
55.4% |
67.1% |
98.8% |
46.3% |
56.8% |
|
|
women |
44.6% |
32.9% |
1.2% |
53.7% |
43.2% |
|
|
total |
100.0% |
100.0% |
100.0% |
100.0% |
100.0% |
|
|
Source: CNAM-UNEDIC, author's calculations, 2005 |
In the years 2009 and 2010.10 volunteer firefighters have died in service. The total number of accidents in service, with or without a work stoppage,
amounted in 2009 to 15,510. There are
196,800 volunteer firemen.
http://www.senat.fr/rap/l10-655/l10-6551.pdf
Working conditions of men are worse and more risky,
they are twice as exposed to occupational risks than women, with the exception
of infection risks. It would be interesting to
assess to what extent this affects the differential life expectancy between men
and women.
Because of these riskier working conditions and a shorter life expectancy,
one would think that men are funded health more important: it is not.
Men represented 59.4% of deaths from tumor in 2004. Yet funding
cancer is more oriented toward women. The
management of cancer of the male genitalia (and breast tumors) amounts to a
cost of 991 million euros in 2004 are 9.1% of the total cost of cancer, while
the management bodies female genital and breast cancer rises at a cost of 1825
million are 16.8% of the total (see Economic analysis Cost of Cancer National
Cancer Institute in March 2007).
As for the cost of screening, 63 million is spent on prostate cancer
against 194 million for breast cancer.
http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?ref_id=natfps06205
www.e-cancer.fr/.../1286-4265etudeeconomieducancerpdf
-
More generally, women's health expenditures are higher than men's health
spending. Such is the case of pharmaceutical spending between 20 and 70 years. As for people aged 20 to 60 years, spending ambulatory (general
practitioners and specialists) women, who averaged 811 euros in 1997, are
higher than those committed by men, the latter amounting to only 620 euros. This is the case for spending on optical and dental care (see results of
studies and DREES No. 182, July 2002, page 3).
Despite these objective data, some do not hesitate to talk about sexism in
women's health, mentioning in passing the so-called wage gap from 27% to the
same job. Men although they represent 56% of ischemic heart disease between 1996 and
2008, despite everything we are told that women are victims of gender-based
screening.
The stress of management positions in particular sectors paying high risk taking, increased cardiovascular risks.
Women who reported feeling high stress at work have an increased risk of
40% of cardiovascular disease compared to those with low stress, according to
research presented at the 2010 Congress of the American Heart Association Scientific. Job insecurity or stress related to the demand for results up to 88% could
increase the risk of heart attack in women.
http://www.neo-formation.fr/08-actualites/etudes-enquetes/article/stress-au-travail-augmentation-de
"Generally, it would seem that work, the impact of stress is greater
on women than on
men. "
http://www.psychomedia.qc.ca/stress/2007-11-20/stress-reactions-differentes-des-hommes-et-des-femmes
http://www.psychomedia.qc.ca/stress/2005-12-03/les-femmes-plus-sensibles-au-stress-que-les-hommes
http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/pubdocs/2010/751/fr/1/EF10751FR.pdf
In comparable situations, women are more prone to stress. As shown by studies that measure blood pressure, cortisol and heart rate,
women are at greater risk of stroke, in stressful situations. There is a remarkable correlation with their lower risk aversion.
http://www.neo-formation.fr/08-actualites/etudes-enquetes/article/stress-hommes-et-femmes-bien
It is not without interest to
recall the data in the context of the entry into force of the law imposing a
40% quota of women on boards of large companies.
The differential in life
expectancy, probably due both to genetic factors, behavioral and working
conditions is 7 years older for women whose careers have 42% complete against
74% for men.
http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=NATCCF04563
Still some way contain the
woman is worth half a man to retire, thus expressing the scandal of a lower
pension of women, due to a lower contribution period.
http://www.bastamag.net/article1168.html
The myth of the double day
actually hides preferences (family, comfort, private space ...)
Some argue that "the house the women do all the work." It is claimed that "women make 80% of domestic tasks. "
http://www.ladepeche.fr/article/2011/06/29/1118132-a-la-maison-les-femmes-font-tout-le-boulot.html
Formally, the figure is false but it is mostly its use without further
explanation that misleads the reader into error.
Women do not provide 80% of housework but 70.3% (race, households, child
care, home improvement, gardening), which is certainly important. However, it is true that they are 79.3% of household chores and errands, a
figure equivalent to that section, but excludes child care and the DIY and
gardening. Recall, however, it is not as such tasks but time spent on these tasks,
nuance is not without interest.
We'll try to contextualize this
statistic which we mean that it does not say.
First, this figure of 70.3% of
domestic tasks including part-time women and inactive women, very important
clarification. When his
spouse works while we do not work, you tend to spend more time on household
chores. Inactive women spend 78.3% of the time and domestic work against 66.7% for
women part-time and 63.7% for women full-time.
Then you must be aware of what these statistics. The
nomenclature includes in particular:
- Shopping
- The fact of working with animals
- Hugs and kisses to children
- Games
- Walks
Clearly, the more a woman makes shopping more it is "victim" of
his spouse who does not share this chore with it.
http://www.insee.fr/fr/ffc/docs_ffc/donsoc06d.pdf
Moreover, the relevant indicator is the time constrains that integrates
work time and housework. This is
where the legend of the double day for women collapses: women account for 49.8%
of the time constrains of a household. Joint
distribution is thus including part-time women (49.5%). There is,
therefore, that women whose full-time constrained time is slightly higher for
men (51.6%), with the precautions of interpretation called for by the above
nomenclature.
INSEE raises an interesting question to which he replies: "How do men
cope with household chores when they live alone, since we must eat, dress,
clean, etc..
? The time devoted to strictly
domestic (cooking, cleaning, shopping, laundry, etc.). By men alone represents
about two-thirds of the time devoted to these tasks by single women. "
http://www.insee.fr/fr/ffc/docs_ffc/ip675.pdf
We learn that men spend only 2/3 of women's time alone with household
chores. 66%, that's close to 57% when in a relationship with a woman full time (42%
overall including inactive women and part-time). Invoked
sexism loses its force as it is in fact not joint preferences regarding household
activities.
75% to 80% of Dutch are part-time and 78% of them are satisfied with the
division of tasks with their spouses in accordance Stellinga Marike van het From myth glazen ceiling (The myth
of the glass ceiling).
|
DISTRIBUTION
OF TIME |
DISTRIBUTION
MEN WOMEN |
|||||||||
|
full time |
Part-time |
inactive (1) |
Together |
full time |
Part-time |
inactive (1) |
Together |
|||
|
Time physiological |
Men |
47.4% |
47.3% |
47.6% |
47.4% |
49.5% |
49.4% |
48.9% |
49.3% |
Time physiological |
|
Work,
studies, training |
Men |
26.6% |
25.9% |
26.5% |
26.4% |
54.7% |
62.1% |
96.0% |
65.4% |
Work,
studies, training |
|
Domestic
time |
Men |
9.3% |
9.3% |
7.8% |
8.8% |
36.3% |
33.3% |
21.7% |
29.7% |
Domestic
time |
|
including:
Households, races |
Men |
4.7% |
4.7% |
3.5% |
4.3% |
26.4% |
23.1% |
14.1% |
20.7% |
including:
Households, races |
|
Child care |
Men |
0.9% |
1.0% |
1.0% |
1.0% |
29.5% |
16.1% |
17.9% |
23.3% |
Child care |
|
DIY, gardening |
Men |
3.8% |
3.5% |
3.2% |
3.5% |
79.4% |
78.5% |
65.7% |
75.0% |
DIY, gardening |
|
Leisure
time |
Men |
14.4% |
15.2% |
16.0% |
15.1% |
56.7% |
51.2% |
48.0% |
52.8% |
Leisure
time |
|
Path |
Men |
2.3% |
2.4% |
2.1% |
2.2% |
49.3% |
47.9% |
36.6% |
44.4% |
Path |
|
100.0% |
100.0% |
100.0% |
100.0% |
50.0% |
50.0% |
50.0% |
50.0% |
|||
|
35.9% |
35.2% |
34.2% |
35.2% |
48.4% |
50.5% |
53.9% |
50.2% |
Constrained
time |
||
|
38.2% |
37.5% |
36.3% |
37.4% |
48.4% |
50.3% |
52.5% |
49.9% |
Constrained
time + travel |
||
|
full time |
Part-time |
inactive (1) |
Together |
full time |
Part-time |
inactive (1) |
Together |
|||
|
Time physiological |
Women |
48.3% |
48.4% |
49.8% |
48.8% |
50.5% |
50.6% |
51.1% |
50.7% |
Time physiological |
|
Work,
studies, training |
Women |
22.0% |
15.8% |
1.1% |
14.0% |
45.3% |
37.9% |
4.0% |
34.6% |
Work,
studies, training |
|
Domestic
time |
Women |
16.3% |
18.7% |
28.1% |
20.9% |
63.7% |
66.7% |
78.3% |
70.3% |
Domestic
time |
|
including:
Households, races |
Women |
13.2% |
15.8% |
21.6% |
16.5% |
73.6% |
76.9% |
85.9% |
79.3% |
including:
Households, races |
|
Child care |
Women |
2.2% |
5.4% |
4.8% |
3.2% |
70.5% |
83.9% |
82.1% |
76.7% |
Child care |
|
DIY, gardening |
Women |
1.0% |
1.0% |
1.7% |
1.2% |
20.6% |
21.5% |
34.3% |
25.0% |
DIY, gardening |
|
Leisure
time |
Women |
11.0% |
14.5% |
17.3% |
13.5% |
43.3% |
48.8% |
52.0% |
47.2% |
Leisure
time |
|
Path |
Women |
2.4% |
2.6% |
3.6% |
2.8% |
50.7% |
52.1% |
63.4% |
55.6% |
Path |
|
100.0% |
100.0% |
100.0% |
100.0% |
50.0% |
50.0% |
50.0% |
50.0% |
|||
|
38.3% |
34.5% |
29.2% |
34.9% |
51.6% |
||||||